205
American Journal of Economic and
Management Business
p-ISSN: XXXX-XXXX
e-ISSN: 2835-5199
Vol. 2 No. 6 June 2023
PEOPLE WITH DISABILITY AND ACCESS TO FINANCIAL
SERVICES: EVIDENCE FROM ODISHA
Kabya Sambad, Ashis Kumar Samal
Nabakrushna choudhury Center for Development Studies, Bhubaneswar,Odisha , India
Email: [email protected]
Abstract
The purpose of this study is to examine the effects of disability on access to financial
services in Odisha. Data for the study were obtained from the Odisha Economic Survey
2021-22. We used an instrumental variable (IV) regression approach to examine the effect
of disability on the use of formal financial institutions and mobile money. We find that
the likelihood of having access to finances and using any of the financial institutions, or
having at least a product/service with a bank reduces for people with disability. Further,
our results show that while people with disability are less likely to use commercial banks
(6.3%), rural banks (4.8%) and at least one financial service (6.3%), they are 53.7% more
likely to use mobile money. Collaborative actions are needed to raise awareness on
mobile money and other Fintech solutions, as well as accessibility functions that can
support the inclusion of persons with disabilities into the financial system
Keywords: financial services; Odisha; mobile money; people with disability
This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0
International
INTRODUCTION
The need to advance disability inclusion around the globe is essential to achieving
the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) (Hák et al., 2016). Ensuring that the
vulnerable and people with disability are served in the financial markets also calls for
innovative financing solutions. Persons with disabilities are specifically referenced 11
times in the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, with a further six references to
persons in vulnerable situations (Lockwood & Tardi, 2014). This means that issues about
disability are at the core of the global development agenda. Persons with disabilities,
whether in developed or developing countries, have limited access to financial services,
including traditional and alternative banking, online payment services and financial
transactions, as well as mobile banking (Yeo & Moore, 2003). This is primarily due to
the fact that their constituency has not been recognized as a large customer base by most
financial service providers. Indeed, reasoning and conceptualizing from the social model
of disability Anastasiou & Kauffman, (2013), these disability statuses of people as
defined in society do exist because of the physical and social barriers in society. Thus,
disability-related obstacles affect the participation of individuals at every stage of
development intervention intended to boost livelihoods. Key among the resources
American Journal of Economic and Management Business
Vol. 2 No. 6 June 2023
206
essential for enhancing the livelihoods of individuals is access to financial resources for
under- taking economic activities. Unfortunately, over the years, traditional banks do not
seem to have served people with disability-related obstacles. Households with disability
have different relationships with banks than those without disability (Goodman et al.,
2017). Economic and demographic characteristics such as race, age, income or home
ownership are among other reasons that may contribute to the lower likeliness of people
with disability (PwDs) and the vulnerable to be fully banked. Moreover, adults with
disabilities are more likely than those without disabilities to have lower incomes, lower
levels of education, less attachment to the labour force and higher expenses Goodman et
al., (2017), thus affecting their financial capability. All these factors contribute to the
financial vulnerability of people with disability (Olga et al., 2018).
Economically, PwDs may not be able to access financial services because of their
low-income earning capacity. For instance, Mactaggart et al.,(2018) found that adults
with disabilities are significantly less likely to be employed compared with those without
disabilities, and those who work are engaged in lower-productive activities and lower-
wage jobs. In some cases, PwDs may also not be engaging in any economic activity at
all, especially when their level of disability is extremely debilitating. The hope was that
microfinance, as a form of informal financial service that targets the entrepreneurial poor
and the vulnerable, could reach out to such groups of people and uplift them from poverty.
Microfinance is perceived as a tool for reducing poverty and achieving economic
empowerment of people with disabilities Armendariz & Labie, (2011), and is also
expected to meet the financial needs of clients with disabilities and support them to invest
in economic activities which can enhance their living standards. In contemporary times,
there is doubt about informal financial institutions regarding the vulnerable and people
with disability. A search for alternative banking systems for people with disability is,
therefore, essential (Wentz et al., 2019). In this regard, mobile money seems to offer
people with disability opportunities to access financial services. Mobile money has also
become an innovative financial solution to reach the unbanked, under-banked and those
that have been neglected by the formal financial systems (David-West et al., 2018). As a
recent technological innovation, mobile money provides financial transaction services via
mobile phone, including to the unbanked global poor and people living with disability.
To the best of our knowledge, we are not aware of the extent to which mobile money
serves the vulnerable, such as people living with disability (Peprah et al., 2022).
Aside from the limited academic literature on financial services and disability
Mersland et al., (2009), little is known in the odisha context about the level of financial
services among PwDs. Besides, no policy has been put in place to ensure that such groups
of people have equal access to financial services as do their counterparts. Embedded in
this problem is the fact that there seems to be a low level of savings and access to credit,
as well as limited access to alternative financial services among vulnerable households
and individual and PwDs, which compounds their perceived unproductively. The problem
may become severe for PwDs in the informal sector compared with those in the formal
sector. The uniqueness of this paper is that we provide a novel analysis of the
determinants of access and assess the level of informal financial services and the use of
mobile money among PwDs. Our argument is that if PwDs are denied the use of financial
services which worsens their disability status as defined by society (Tsatsou, 2021), then
the alternative could be the use of mobile money which provides remote financial
transactions. In doing this, we use the recent living standards survey to examine the level
Kabya Sambad, Ashis Kumar Samal
207
of financial services among PwDs. Controlling for other factors; we examine the effect
of having a disability status on the use of financial services.
Even though not documented, it is well known that PwDs face several challenges
in society, including access to financial services. However, in the context of Odisha, no
study has investigated the extent to which this issue exists; in addition to examining the
effects of having a disability status on access to financial services, we also contribute to
investigating the extent to which having some form of disability affects access to financial
services in Odisha. We document policies that will contribute to bridging the gap between
PwDs and those without. Based on the concepts of the social model of disability, these
are expected to reduce the disability status of people as defined by society through the
barriers. The remaining sections of the paper are organized as follows: the next section
reviews related literature; section three discusses disability and access to financial
services; the methodology and identification strategy are discussed in section four; in
section five we present the results and discussion; and the final section concludes with
recommendations
RESEARCH METHODS
To examine the level of access to financial services among PwDs, we use data from
Odisha Economic Survey 2021-22 (McGarity & Caplan, 2019). This is the latest national
representative survey about Odisha individuals and households. The survey was
conducted in 2020/2021 across all the regions of Odisha. In this dataset, the following
files were merged: health, poverty, expenditure, credit, assets, savings and use of financial
services. These files contain information about the disability conditions of individuals,
socioeconomic and demographic characteristics, and access to financial services by
respondents. A sample of 860 individuals (1.47%) out of 58,596 live with several forms
of disabilities including hearing, speech, physical, intellectual, emotional and others. The
financial services file contains information about credit, assets, savings and use of
financial services by respondents. Table presents the description and measurement of
variables that were used in the study. Disability was measured as ‘Yes = 1’ if an individual
is living with any form of disability.
Table-1
Description of Variable
Variable
Description
Type
Disability status
Whether an individual of the household has disability
or not?
0 = no, 1 = yes
Disability type
Sight, hearing, physical, emotional, speech,
intellectual, other
Categorical
Access to mobile
money
Does a member have mobile money?
0 = no, 1 = yes
Access to
commercial bank
Does a member have commercial bank?
0 = no, 1 = yes
Access to
community and
rural bank
Does a member have community and rural bank
account?
0 = no, 1 =
yes
Ownership of bank
account
Whether a member have at least one bank account.
0 = no, 1 = yes
Phone
Does member own a mobile phone (phone
ownership)?
0 = no, 1 =
yes
American Journal of Economic and Management Business
Vol. 2 No. 6 June 2023
208
Expenditure on
phone
Total expenditure on mobile phone
Continuous
Sex
Sex of respondent
0 = male,
1 = female
Age
Age in years
Continuous
Age
2
Age in years square
Continuous
Location
Location of the respondent
1 = rural
0 = urban,
Education level
Levels of educational attainment
Categorical
Religious affiliation
Religious affiliation
Categorical
Marital status
Marital status
Categorical
Welfare
Per adult equivalent annual household consumption
expenditures
Continuous
Type of FI having
account with
In what type of financial institution do you have the
Categorical
Source: Compiled from Odisha economic survey (Pani & Mishra, 2022)
Model specification
The probit model was used to estimate access to financial services (access to
commercial bank, community and rural bank accounts) while the instrumental variable
(IV) probit was used to estimate the effect of access to mobile money services. Just like
any limited dependent variable model, the dependent variable is dichotomous. Thus, an
individual takes a value of 1 if they have access to an account or use a financial service
with a particular financial institution, or 0 otherwise. Following Wooldridge (2016), the
probability of having access to financial services is given by:
FSi ¼ 1 if FSωi >0 0 if FSωi ≤ 0
Where FSi is financial service for individual i. Econometrically, FSωi is expressed
as: FSωi ¼ ωi þ θiXi þ⍱i þ ε1i ð1Þ
This equation describes the probability of an individual having access to a particular
financial institution account or mobile money (FSiω Þ as influenced by a set of
independent variables Xi (vector of individual characteristics, household characteristics,
community characteristics) while ⍱i denotes individual-specific, time-invariant
observables (sex). FSiω is a dichotomous variable that takes 1 if an individual has access
to a financial service and 0 if the individual does not. With equation (2) we use the probit
model to estimate the effect of disability status on access to financial services
(commercial bank, rural bank account and at least one financial institution). This is
expressed as:
FSi ¼ γ1 þ γ2Disabi þ γ3 Welfarei þ γ4Sexi þ γ5Agei þ γ6Agesqri þ γ7Locationi þ
γ8Edui þ γ9Relii þ γ10Maritali þ ei ð2Þ
The financial services (FS) in the model are commercial banks, rural and
community banks (RCBs) and at least one financial institution, and disability status
(Disab), age square (agesqr), educational level (Edu), religious affiliation (Reli) and
marital status (marital) are included. The results of equation 2 are presented in Table 3.
In the case of access to mobile money (Momo), phone ownership was included
since it influences access to Momo. Meanwhile, it is argued that there exists a bi-causality
between access to Momo and phone ownership. This causality makes the use of the
traditional probit model inappropriate in our estimation. Hence, the use of instrumental
variable probit model (IV Probit) estimation. Thus, we instrument mobile phone
Kabya Sambad, Ashis Kumar Samal
209
ownership with expenditure on mobile phone. The intuition is that expenditure on mobile
phone (the cost of the mobile in the past 12 months) influences ownership of mobile
phone but does not directly influence access to a mobile money account. Even though
some people receive mobile phones as gifts, cost could still be an issue to the buyer. Cost
or price of mobile phone has been used in previous studies as an instrument for cell phone
use (Sridhar & Sridhar, 2007). Hence the two-stage IV probit was specified. The first
stage of the model is equation (3). This was first estimated and the predicted values were
used in equation four (4).
Phonei ¼ γ1 þ γ2ExpPhonei þ γ3Disabi þ γ4Welfarei þ γ5Sexi þ γ6 Agei
þγ7Agesqri þ γ8Locationi þ γ9Edui þ γ10Relii þ γ11Maritali þ μi ð3Þ Mobile phone
ownership (Phone), Expenditure on phone (ExpPhone).
MoMoi ¼ γ1 þ γ2Disabi þ γ3Phonei þ γ4Welfarei þ γ5Sexi þ γ6Agei þ γ7 Agesqri
þ γ8Locationi þ γ9Edui þ γ10Relii þ γ11Maritali þ ei ð4Þ
The marginal effects of access to mobile money (equation 4) is presented in Table
5, whereas the first stage results and the comparison between the traditional probit model
and the IV probit model is presented in Appendix A3.\
Robustness checks
To statistically verify the existence of bi-causality which leads to the use of IV
probit, the Wald test of exogeneity was conducted. The null hypothesis of no endogeneity
was rejected at 5% alpha level since Prob > chi2 = 0.0003. This implies that endogeneity
exists and hence, presenting the IV probit result is appropriate (see Table 3) as opposed
to the traditional probit model. Again, the test implies that error terms in both the
structural and reducedform equations for the endogenous variable (phone ownership) are
correlated.
RESULT AND DISCUSSION
In this section, we present the results and discussions of the study. First, we present
the summary and descriptive statistics of the variables that were used in our estimations.
Second, we discuss the findings from access to financial services and the extent to which
disability affects the use of mobile money.
People with disability and access to financial services
In general, access to financial services continues to be low in Odisha despite several
efforts made by the government to promote financial inclusion. Table 2 presents the
distribution of access to financial services in people with disability and those without
disability. Financial services include ownership of a bank account, and the type of bank
that individuals deal with, savings accounts, mortgage or investment accounts, savings
accounts with microfinance institutions, and mobile money accounts. The Pearson chi-
square shows that there exist significant differences between having access and no access
to financial services and products in people with disability compared with those without
disability
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Vol. 2 No. 6 June 2023
210
Table-2 Financial Services and disability
Access to financial service
Non-PwDs
(%)
PwDs (%)
Total
(%)
Bank account (formal)
No access
50.89
71.21
51.46
Have access
49.11
28.79
48.54
Commercial bank
No access
78.96
89.46
79.25
Have
21.04
10.54
20.75
Rural Bank
No access
90.97
93.83
91.05
Have access
9.03
6.17
8.95
Savings account
No access
70.08
84.06
70.47
Have access
29.92
15.94
29.53
Investment/mortgage
No access
97.59
98.46
97.61
Have access
2.41
1.54
2.39
Savings and loans scheme
No access
94.91
98.20
95.01
Have access
5.09
1.80
4.99
Susu scheme (informal)
No access
94.80
97.43
94.87
Have access
5.20
2.57
5.13
Mobile money
No access
85.75
88.95
85.84
Have access
14.25
11.05
14.16
Total
100.00
100.00
100.00
Source: Author Calculations from Odisha economic Survey (Goodman et al., 2017)
Across all the financial products and services, more people with disability have
limited access compared with their counterparts, and in terms of access, people with
disability lag behind. For instance, while 49.11% of peo- ple without disability have
formal banks, only 28.79% of PwD do, and only 10.54% of PwD reported having access
to commercial banks compared with people without disability (21.04%). It is worrying to
note that rural banks that operate mostly in rural communities serve only a little above
6% of people with disability. This indeed re-echoes their disability status as they are
deprived of financial opportunities. The situation is worse in terms of savings and loans,
not only for people with disability (1.80%) but also for those without disabilities (5.09%).
Besides formal bank account ownership, mobile money seems to be promising as it serves
a little above 11% of people with disabilities.
People with disability and use of financial services
Kabya Sambad, Ashis Kumar Samal
211
Access to banking services has become an increasingly important tool for financial
inclusion, and it gives people control over their care and support, including managing
personal budgets, as well as promoting control and Independence. Evidence from the
Odisha Economic Survey in Odisha shows that PwD are deprived of the use of banking
services after controlling for individual and household characteristics.
Table 3 Marginal Effects
Variable
Commercial Bank RCB At least one Financial
service
Dy/Dx Std. error Dy/Dx Std. error Dy/Dx Std. error
PWD
-0.063 0.030 -0.048 0.026 -0.063 0.030
Age
0.007 0.002 0.006 0.002 0.007 0.002
Relegion
Hindu
0.090 0.019 0.050 0.017 0.090 0.019
Chiristian
Muslim
0.064 0.023 0.053 0.020 0.064 0.023
Traditional
-0.027 0.031 0.063 0.028 -0.027 0.031
Region
North
0.082 0.019 0.025 0 .016 0.082 0.019
South
0.097 0.020 0.141 0.017 0.097 0.020
East
0.083 0.019 0.041 0.017 0.083 0.019
West
0.013 0.018 -0.043 0.015 0.013 0.018
Welfare
0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0 .000 0.000
Sex
Female
-0.045 0.012 -0.06 0.010 -0.045 0.012
Male
-0.063 0.018 - 0.072 0.017 -0.052 0.018
Location
Rural
0.093 0.010 -0.095 0.008 -0.093 0.010
Urban
0. 064 0.008 00 00 - 0.086 0.012
Education
Metric
0.139 0.012 0.105 0.009 0.139 0.012
+2
0.272 0.015 0.287 0.014 0.272 0.015
Territory
0.460 0.014 0.520 0.018 0.460 0.014
Table 3 presents the probit regression results (marginal effects) of people living
with disability on the use of financial services. The use of financial services includes
having an account with a commercial, rural or community bank, and having at least one
financial product or service with a bank. Being a person with disability reduces the
likelihood of dealing with a commercial and rural bank, but the likelihood is greater for
commercial banks (0.063) compared with rural banks (0.026). In the same way, being a
person with disability reduces the probability of having at least one financial product or
service with a bank. Thus, PwDs are 6.3% less likely to have at least one financial product
or service with a bank. The reduced likeliness of peo- ple with disability using financial
services might be a result of several reasons. For instance, PwDs are perceived to be risky
by financial institutions because they might not have collateral security. In addition,
people with disability are perceived to be low-income earners or have no source of income
at all. The limited access to finance is also basi- cally based on the assumption about what
people with disability are able and unable to do (Teles, 2016), such as their capacity to
write and read, as well as the ability in making relevant independent financial decisions.
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It is also important to note that the nature of banking halls can deprive such persons of
accessing them. The absence of disability- friendly structures, such as building ramps and
the like, reduces their accessibility.
Again, for personal reasons, most PwD may voluntarily exclude themselves from
going to the bank to transact business because they are discouraged by their own
perception that their applications would be denied. The physical design of some bank
premises and other storefront financial service providers do not ensure access for a range
of consumers with disability. Besides, people with disability are more likely to self-select
out of the credit market because of low perceived creditworthiness. This situation is likely
to contribute to the financial vulnerability of people with disability.
With reference to males with disability, their female counter parts are less likely to
use financial services, indicating that gender gap also exists among people with disability.
Thus, being a female reduces the likelihood of using commercial banks, rural and
community banks, and having at least one financial service or product by 4.5%, 6.6%,
and 4.5% respectively (Table 3), which is not the case for mobile money.
Table 4 Extent of effect of disability on access to financial services.
Comm Bank —0.096* 0.056 —0.067 0.083 —0.011 0.039 —0.172* 0.091
Abbreviations: NB: Comm Bank = access to commercial bank; RCB = access to rural and
community bank; At least one FS = access to at least one financial service; control
variables = all control variables used in the earlier estimations.
***p < 0.01,
**p < 0.05,
*p < 0.1.
In general, marital status influences the use of financial institutions, except for
consensual habitation. For example, being married influences having an account with a
traditional bank, especially commercial banks, and also enables access to at least one
financial product. Among people with disability, sex matters. In a study by Zins and Weil
(2016) in India, a similar result was obtained that being a woman decreases the probability
of having a mobile account and of owning a formal account (1.9% and 1.7%,
respectively). Location matters for the use of financial services. In all the models, being
resident in a rural area with reference to urban locations reduces the likelihood of having
an account with a commercial bank. This is not surprising because financial institutions
are usually located in urban communities, so naturally rural dwellers are usually excluded
from the use of traditional commercial banks.
RCB
—
0.023 0.048 0.040 0.067
—
0.029 0.03 0.0159*** 0,060
At least one FS
0.040
0.060
0.030
0.067
Yes Yes Yes Yes
Sight
Hearing
Outcome variables
S
E
SE
SE
SE
Kabya Sambad, Ashis Kumar Samal
213
Extent of the effect of disability on access to financial services
We also examine the extent to which the various dimensions of disability status
affect access to financial services (see Table 4). Some disability types present more
challenges than others. People with disabilities constitute diverse groups of people with
a wide range of types and severity of disabilities (Morris, 2018). In this study, we group
disabilities into hearing, sight, physical and other impairments. Controlling for all
variables (as in Tables 2 and 3), we examine the extent to which different disability
statuses affect access to financial services. In terms of commercial banks, people with
sight impairment are 9.6% less likely to access products and services, while those with
other disabilities are 17.2% less likely to use commercial banks. The extent of
inaccessibility of financial services is greater for people with other forms of disability
compared with those with sight, hearing and physical challenges. People with disability
related to sight and hearing mostly are capable of reading and writing. Accessing of
formal financial services is mostly based on one's ability to read and write Mersland et
al., (2009), hence it is not surprising that people with sight- and hearing-related
disabilities have higher chances of accessing financial services and products compared
with the other forms. Other forms of disabilities include people with severe impairments
such as deaf and dumb, visual and cripple, among others. In terms of access to at least
one financial service, the disability status does not matter since we found no statistically
significant coefficient.
CONCLUSION
This paper examined access to financial services among PwDs using national
representative data from Odisha. In terms of usage of financial services, the proportion of
people without disability is higher than those with disability. With mobile money, the
likelihood of having access to finances and using any of the financial institutions or
having at least one product/service with a bank reduces for people with disability.
However, our findings established that disability status does not reduce the likelihood of
using mobile money. Thus, in this study, we conclude that to a large extent, mobile money
acts as a substitute for standard banking services by increasing the probability to send and
receive money among people living with disability. We also find that mobile money
services could be used to enhance the financial capability of PwD, especially in rural
areas. The extent of the effect of disability on access to financial services is greater for
people with certain forms (emotional and intellectual disability) of disability compared
with those with sight, hearing and physical challenges.
Even though the likelihood of participating in the traditional banking financial
market reduces for PwD, the need for policies that target these groups of the population,
particularly those that are financially excluded, and identify the main obstacles they face
is crucial. This study recommends an affirmative approach to support the participation of
persons with disabilities in financial services. Thus, priorities should be given to PwDs
in financial services. The financial services industry should give employment to PwDs
and implement assistive technologies such as braille readers and alternative and
augmentative communication devices. Indeed, financial institutions should include PwDs
when making discussions relating to expanding and strengthening financial
independence. There is also the need to make smart phones more affordable for persons
American Journal of Economic and Management Business
Vol. 2 No. 6 June 2023
214
with disabilities to tackle significant barriers, as would providing digital skills training
designed to support the learning journey of persons with different types of disabilities.
Again, as part of the monthly transfer payment made by the government to PwDs, one-
time mobile phones can be provided, especially to those who do not have one
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